English pedagogy for TET / CTET , Complete Pedagogy for TET/CTET Exam

 

CTET /UPTET PEDAGOGY FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Pedagogy for English Language

Language educators have long used the concepts of four basic language skills

1.       Listening

2.       Speaking

3.       Reading

4.       Writing

The four basic skills are related to each other by two parameters

·         The mode of communication : oral or written

·         The direction of communication : receiving or producing the message

1.       Listening

Listening comprehension is the receptive skills in the oral mode. When we speak of listening what we really mean is listening and understanding what we hear.

Listening Situations

There are two kinds of listening situations in which we find ourselves

1.       interactive, and

2.       non – interactive

Interactive listening situations include face – to face conversations and telephone calls, in which we are alternately listening and speaking, and in which we have a chance to ask for clarification, repetition, or slower speech from our conversation partner. Some non – interactive listening situations are listening to the radio, TV, films, lectures, or sermons. In such situations we usually don’t have the opportunity to ask for clarification, slower or repetition.

Micro – skills

Richards (1983, cited in Omaggio, 1986) proposes that the following are the micro – skills involved in understanding what someone says to us. the listener has to

·         retain chunks of language in short – term memory

·         discriminate among the distinctive sounds in the new language

·         recognize stress and rhythm patterns, tone patterns, intonational contours.

·         recognize reduced forms of words

·         distinguish word boundaries

·         recognize typical word – order patterns

·         recognize vocabulary

·         detect key words, such as those identifying topics and ideas

·         guess meaning from context

·         recognize grammatical word classes

·         recognize basic syntactic patterns

·         recognize cohesive devices

·         detect sentence constituents, such as subject, verb object, prepositions, and the like

2.       Speaking

Speaking is the productive skills in the oral mode. It, like the other skills, is more complicated than it seems at first and involves more than just pronouncing words.

Speaking Situations

There are three kinds of speaking situations in which we find ourselves

·         Interactive,

·         partially interactive, and

·         non – interactive.

Interactive speaking situation include face – to face conversation and telephone calls, in which are alternately listening and speaking, and in which we have a chance to ask for clarification, repetition, or slower speech from our conversation partner. Some speaking situations are partially interactive, such as when giving a speech to a live audience, where the convention is that the audience does not interrupt the speech. The speaker nevertheless can see the audience and judge from the expressions on their faces and body language whether or not he or she is being understood.

Some few speaking situation may be totally non – interactive, such as when recording a speech for a radio broadcast.

Micro – Skills

Here are some of the micro – skills involved in speaking. The speaker has to

·         Pronounce the distinctive sounds of a language clearly enough so that people can distinguish them. This includes making tonal distinctions.

·         Use stress and rhythmic patterns, and intonation patterns of the language clearly enough so that people can understand what is said.

·         Use the correct forms of words. This may mean, for example, changes in the tense case, or gender.

·         Put words together in correct word order.

·         Use vocabulary appropriately.

·         Use the register or language variety that is appropriate to the situation and the relationship to the conversations partner.

·         Make clear to the listener the main sentence constituents, such as subject, verb, object, by whatever means the language uses.

·         Make the main ideas stand out from supporting ideas or information.

·         Make the discourse hang together so that people can follow what you are saying.

3.       Reading

Reading is the receptive skill in the written mode. It can develop independently of listening and speaking skills, but often develops along with them, especially in societies with a highly – developed literary tradition. Reading can help build vocabulary that helps listening comprehension at the stages, particularly.

Micro – skills

Here are some of the micro – skills involved in reading. The reader has to

·         Decipher the script. In an alphabetic system or a syllabary, this means establishing a relationship between sounds and symbols. In a pictograph system, it means associating the meaning of the words with written symbols.

·         Recognize vocabulary.

·         Pick out key words, such as those identifying topics and main ideas.

·         Figure out the meaning of the words, including unfamiliar vocabulary, from the (written) context.

·         Recognize grammatical word classes: noun, adjective, etc.

·         Detect sentence constituents, such as subject, verb object, preposition, etc.

·         Recognize basic syntactic patterns.

·         Reconstruct and infer situation, goals and participants.

·         Use both knowledge of the word and lexical and grammatical cohesive devices to make the foregoing inferences, predict outcomes, and infer links and connections among the parts of the text.

·         Get the main point or the most important information.

·         Distinguish the main idea from supporting details.

·         adjust reading strategies to different reading purposes, such as skimming for main ideas or studying in – depth.

4.       Writing

Writing is the productive skill in the written mode. It, too, is more complicated than it seems at first, and often seems to be the hardest of the skills, even for native speakers of a language, since it involves not just a graphic representation of speech, but the development and presentation of thoughts in a structured way.

Micro – Skills

Here is some of the micro – skills involved in writing. The writer needs to

·         Use the orthography correctly, including the script, the spelling and punctuation conventions.

·         Use the correct forms of words. This may mean using forms that express the right tense, or case or gender.

·         Put words together in correct words order.

·         Use vocabulary correctly.

·         Use the style appropriate to the genre and audience.

·         Make the main sentence constituents, such as subject, verb and object, clear to the reader.

·         Make the main distinct from supporting ideas or information.

·         Make the text coherent, so that other people can follow the development of the ideas.

·         Judge how much background knowledge the audience has not the subject and make clear what it is assumed they don’t know.

 

TEACHING LEARNING MATERIALS

Teaching Aids:

·         Teacher teaches and students learn from teacher. In process of teaching learning processes teacher uses something to make his teaching learning process effective. The material and aids which are used by teacher to make his teaching very effective is called teaching aids and instructional material. The language teaching is not a static process but it is a dynamic process.

·         Teacher should select teaching material and instructional according the objectives decided by teacher so that skill of reading, understanding, writing and speaking and sub skills of skills are developed in students.

·         English is second or foreign language. So the teaching material and instructional material play important role in teaching learning process. Thus, use and selection of teaching aids must be very carefully.

 

 

Types of Teaching and Instructional Material:

·         Visual Aids

1.       Boards: Blackboard, Flannel boards, Soft boards.

2.       Charts, Maps, Pictures, Drawings.

3.       Static and Working Model

4.       Film strip, Slider Projector, OHP

·         Transparencies and Episcope.

·         Audio Aids

1.       Audio Cassette Player

2.       Radio

·         Audio Visual Aids

1.       Video Cassette Player

2.       Video Compact Disc Player

3.       Television

4.       Film Projector

·         Language Laboratory

·         Computer Assisted Learning

1.       Visual Aids:

(a) Boards: Blackboard, Flannel board, soft boards: These boards are used to display different types of display material. There are kinds of display boards used to display charts, maps, tables etc.

(b) Charts, maps, Pictures and Drawings: These teaching aids play main role in teaching learning process. They interest in students. They prepare students mentally and motivate for further preparation. Teachers can prepare these aids himself of readymade. But he should himself be a creative person so that student could follow him. Charts may be written or drawn in thick coloured papers and can be hanged or displayed by using any of the boards. Pictures can also be displayed by using any of the boards. Maps can be either hanged or displayed by using any of the display boards. The teacher can draw picture or any sketch item also to be displayed with the help of display board.

(c) Static and working Modal: Models plays important role in teaching learning process. Teacher can use modal to make his teaching very effective, For example. Teacher wants to teach the topic elephant. He can use both the static and working model. Working model of elephant creates primary interest in students. Static modal can be used if working model is not available. If models are not available. He can use charts, pictures or drawing.

(d) Film strip, slide Projector, OHP: Transparencies and Episcope: The teacher can use film strip and slide projector to make his teaching too effective. These aids make students to draw their attention very carefully toward teaching. Slides are available in the market and teacher can use them according to need of content.

(e) Over Head Projector: OHP is the hardware used to project the transparencies. The transparency is plastic sheet which on which teacher can develop his own material to be presented. Use of OHP by teacher is good practical that help him to make his teaching very interested effective.

(f) Episcope: Episcope is also known as Epidiascope. The material on opaque sheet is projected with the help of this hardware.

The teacher can project any material developed in simple plain paper sheet. Small size of picture can be projected through this instructional material.

2.       Audio Aids:

(a) Audio cassette player: We all re introduced of tape recorder or audio cassette player. We use it in our houses and shop to listen song. It is also used in teaching learning process by teacher. It makes teaching very scientific and effective. In this process the subject matter is recorded as audio cassette and played on this machine. The students repeat the subject matter and learn. The learners have an access to native language and they better drill the pattern in its required form. The teaching activities become more and more effective and alive.

(b) Radio: The radio was very famous medium of mass media before three decades. It was first attempt to teach English with the help of radio. In this source the teacher has no criteria to select the learning material because whatever aired is the source. Radio must appeal to every type and level of taste. But there is room on the air for instrumental and vocal music, both classical and popular, addresses, forums, debates, sports events, mysteries, religious broadcasts, quiz programmes, variety programmes. It should be possible for the listener to make a free selection from among many of these kinds of programmes both during the day and in the evening.

3.       Audio- Visual Aids:

In the twentieth century technology was advanced at the highest pace. In the beginning of the year there were limited resources available but in the end of the options are many. It is believed that audio visual aids may create interest and motivation at the highest degree because through this teaching aid learner’s both eye and ear become active so they are widely used in teaching of language. Audio and visual both media have high impact on the mind of learners.

 (a) Video Cassette Player: We have seen may films on video. How we see this film on video. Through which tool we take enjoy of film? This is video cassette which enable us take enjoy of film. This material is recorded in the video cassette and we look film. Thus in teaching learning process teacher uses this VCP to make his teaching effective and alive. Teaching materials available on the video tape are played by this machine VCP.

(b)  Video Compact Disc Player: Now we can take the help of VCD to make teaching effective so to view the material the VCD is played on this machine. it is the latest audio visual aid. The programmes record on the video cassettes can be transferred into compact disk.

(c)  Television: We all know about television because rather it is available at every house in India. On television we take enjoy of film, serials, and other programmes. Television is instrument through which one can view educational programmes. The educational programmes are also aired from respective TV programmes production centre. They are as good as radio programs which teacher cannot select.

(d)  Film Projector: Before the introduction of TV and other media resources, the film was very famous media. The programmes which are recorded on film are projected with the help of film projectors.

Language Laboratory: Language laboratory in the place where the learners have to listen on headphone. The language labs are set up with a view to provide listening activities in order to make them developing good speech habit. The learning material are recorded on audiotapes which are played back by teacher is to be drilled and the same is monitored by the mentor. Leaner himself records his practice and listens to it.

Computer assisted language learning: Computer assisted language learning means is to present teaching material trough computer. To use of computer in teaching learning process is innovation in educational circle. The computer technology has brought multimedia package means the programme is developed with all kinds of media available for presentation. In this presentation, texts, graphics, audio and video are available. The computer is multimedia system. It is VCD, DVD, VCR, Slide Projector and Film Projector.

Characteristics of various types of instructional material:

1.       Supplement Oral Teaching: We know that most of class room teaching is verbal which cannot make teaching learning effective: The verbal statements made by teacher do not help to clarify the viewpoints. At such a stage audio visual aids help to clarify the view of teacher.

2.       Audio Visual Aids motivator: Audio visual aids work as motivators in teaching learning process. Without use of these aids the teaching becomes alive less. While teacher uses teaching aids to clear his content then students take more interest int that teaching. They mentally prepare for further teaching. They are motivated to work more and effectively. Motivation, in other words is the preparatory. Phase for all act of learning. Audio visual aids are helpful in establishing motivation.

3.       Prevent Indiscipline and Monotony: Teacher use teaching aids to make his teaching effective and alive. Use of aids prevents monotony and indiscipline of student because it creates interest in student to know something. Thus it is helpful to make teaching very interesting.

4.       Make Learning Permanent: Audio Visual aids involve more than one sensory organs of the learner which improve retentiveness and make learning permanent. In audio visual aids, seeing and hearing go together which play extraordinary roles in learning. The aids apples to those senses that can respond adequately.

5.       Save Time and Energy: When teacher clear his content verbally or without any teaching aids, it takes more time for students to understand that content. But when it is cleared by using audio visual aids, it takes lees time and makes students to understand very easily. It saves more time of and energy of teacher and students.

6.       Provide direct Experience: There are aids that provide direct learning experience to students. Under this category education tours, visit to zoo, and museums, taking the students into the community – resources etc. are some of the sources that provides first-hand knowledge and serve as important aids for learning.

Role of Grammar in Learning a Language

Linguistic: The scientific study of language and its structure, including the study of grammar, syntax, and phonetics.

Linguists define grammar as a set of components:

1.       Phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the sounds of human speech using the mouth, throat, nasal and sinus cavities, and lungs (i.e, production and perception of sounds).

2.       Phonology: Phonology is the study of the patterns of sounds in a language and across languages (i.e., how sounds are combined).

3.       Morphology: The study of forms or how elements are combined to create words

4.       Morphemes: Morphemes are the minimal units of words that have a meaning and cannot be subdivided further.

5.       Syntax: how words are strung together into sentences

6.       Semantics: Relating to meaning in language or logic.

·         Because all languages are characterized by these components, by definition, language does not exist without grammar.

·         Originally, the term grammar and grammatical referred to the art of writing, as compared to rhetoric and rhetorical, which is the art of speaking.

·         As used today by many teachers and learners, grammar is loosely understood to be a set of rules that govern language, primarily its morphology and syntax. But morphology and syntax are only two components of grammar.

·         Communicative language teaching has brought a renewed emphasis on the role that semantics play in the definition of language.

·         Communicative language teaching is fundamentally concerned with ‘making meaning’ in the language, whether by interpreting someone else’s message, expressing one’s own or negotiating when meaning is unclear.

·         The goal of language learning in the communicative classroom is for learners to acquire the grammar of the second language in its broadest sense, to enable them to understand and make meaning, that is, to become proficient users of the second language.

1.Explicit grammar instruction (EGI):

·         The use of instructional strategies to draw the students’ attention to or focus on form and/or structure.

·         The role of EGI in a second/foreign language class has changed drastically in the last forty years as the favored methodology changed from the grammar-translation to audio-lingual, then from audio-lingual to cognitive, and finally from cognitive to communicative approaches.

2. The grammar-translation approach:

·         Grammar-translation approach concentrated on grammar skills, in particular, the ability to use grammatical terminology to describe the various morphological and syntactic principles of the target language.

·         With the advent of audio-lingualism, instructors were not supposed to spend a great deal of time talking directly about target language grammar rules.

3. Grammar in communicating ideas in written form:

·         Effective grammar instructions begin with what students already know about grammar, and it helps them to use this knowledge as they write.

·         By connecting their knowledge of oral language to written language, teachers can demystify abstract grammatical terminology so that students can write—and read—with greater competence and confidence.

·         Because writing is a complex and challenging activity for many students, teachers should focus on the grammatical concepts that are essential for the clear communication of meaning.

4. Grammar is essential for:

·         Teaching concepts on subject, verb, sentence, clause, phrase, and related concepts for editing.

·         Teaching style though sentence combining and sentence generating.

·         Teaching sentence sense through the manipulation of syntactic elements.

·         Teaching both the power of dialects and the dialects of power.

·         Teaching punctuation and mechanics for convention, clarity and style

·         CHALLENGES OF TEACHING & LEARNING STYLES IN A DIVERSE CLASSROOM

·         • Knowing students are, as a group and as individuals, is an important part of good teaching. The variety of students is far greater, and their needs are very different. To facilitate the learning process of students with a variety of backgrounds and needs, the following points are important:
• Treat all students as individuals with unique strengths, weakness, and needs rather than as generalized representatives of particular racial, ethnic or cultural groups.
• Employ a variety of teaching styles to respond to the needs of diverse learners.
• Create an open classroom that values the experiences and perspectives of all students.

·         Learning Styles in a Diverse Classroom:
Eddy (1999) describes a learning style as the way in which we prefer to organize, classify and assimilate information about the environment.
According to Eddy, there are three main learning styles:

·         1. Auditory Learners:
• Prefers to receive ideas and information by hearing them.
• These students may struggle with reading and writing, but excel at memorizing spoken words such as song lyrics.
• They often benefit from discussion – based classes and the opportunity to give oral presentations.

·         2. Visual Learners:
• Prefers to receive information by seeing it.
• These students pay much attention to detail.
• They are less likely to speak in class than their auditory peers, and generally use few words when they do.
• Outlines, graphs, maps, and pictures are useful in helping these students learn.

·         3. Kinesthetic- Tactile Learners:
• Tend to learn best via movement and touch.
• These students are often labeled “hyperactive” because they tend to move around a great deal.
• They like movement, they may take notes and learn best when allowed to explore and experience their movement.

·         Learning Environment for Children with Learning Difficulties
• Understanding learning styles can help you create more inclusive classrooms where everyone has a chance to succeed.
• Some students will have unique challenges that make learning in a traditional classroom difficult.
• Examples include visual or hearing impairments, Attention Deficit Disorder, Mobility challenges, chronic illness and learning disabilities.
• There are many possible accommodations that help to create a productive learning environment for these students.
• These are the suggestions to consider when teacher work with students with special needs:
1. Even though two students may have the same disability, their needs for accommodation may be quite different. Treat each student as an individual.
2. Keep in mind that disabilities are not always visible to us. It is not required to assess a student’s health; teacher should accept authorized documentation concerning an individual student’s needs.
3. Using many modes (written/ verbal/ video/slide, etc.) to present information is one way to help some learners with special needs learn more effectively.

·         Tips on Teaching in a Diverse Classroom:
• Appreciating the individuality of each student is important. While generalizations sensitize us to important differences between groups, each individual student has unique values, perspectives, experiences and needs.
• Articulate early in the course that you are committed to meeting the needs of all students and that you are open to conversations about how to help them learn.
• It is important that teacher recognize their own learning styles and cultural assumptions, because these styles and assumptions influence how they teach and what they expect from their students. Being aware of them allows teacher to develop a more inclusive teaching styles.
• Prepare multiple examples to illustrate points. Try to have these examples reflect different cultures, experiences, genders etc. to include all students in learning.
• Help students move between abstract, theoretical knowledge and concrete, specific experiences, to expand everyone’s learning.
• Use different teaching methods (lectures, small groups, discussions, collaborative learning) to meet the variety of learning needs.

 

EVALUATION OF COMPREHENSION:

Importance of Evaluation:
Evaluation helps the teacher to know whether the teaching methodology adopted was successful or not. It helps the teacher to know how successful students were in learning new skills i.e. LSRW. Evaluation also helps the students to determine which area of learning requires more attention.

Steps of Evaluation
• Determine educational objectives
• Organize learning experiences
• Measure behavioral changes
• Perform tests

Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE):
Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation is a system which was introduced by CBSE in India to assess all aspects of a student’s development on a continuous basis throughout the year. It covers both scholastic subjects as well as co-scholastic areas such as performance in arts, music, dance, sports, athletics and other cultural activities. Some students are not good in academics but can excel in other extracurricular activities.
• Continuous denotes regular and continuous activities conducted throughout the year to achieve all round development.
• Comprehensive suggests mental, emotional and physical aspects of the student’s progress i.e. all round development of the student.
• Evaluation suggests variety of tools and techniques which are used to assess and evaluate the student’s progress.

Objectives of CCE:
Some of the objectives of CCE are as follows
• To develop cognitive, psychomotor and affective skills.
• To lay emphasis on thought process and de-emphasize memorization. To make evaluation as integral part of teaching learning process.
• To use evaluation as a quality control device to maintain desired standard of performance.
• To make the process of teaching and learning a learner – centered activity.

Scholastic aspects include curricular areas or subject specific areas, whereas co-scholastic aspects include life skills, co-curricular activities, attitudes and values.

 

Importance of CCE Scheme:
It will reduce stress and anxiety which often build up during and after the examination which could have an adverse effect on learners.
• It will reduce the dropout rate as there will be less fear and anxiety.
• The emphasis on conceptual clarification through experimental learning in the classroom will increase.
• It will help the learners to develop holistically in terms of personality by also focusing on the co – scholastic aspects which will also be assessed.
• The student will have more time on their hands to develop their interest, hobbies and personalities.
• It will motivate learning in a friendly environment than in the fearful situation.
• It provides information and helps in making decisions for the future, regarding choice of subjects, courses and careers.

Formative Assessment:
Formative Assessment is a tool to continuously monitor student progress in a non-threatening supportive environment. It involves regular feedback, a chance for student to reflect on the performance and improve upon by taking advice.

Features of Formative Assessment:
• It is diagnostic and remedial.
• It provides a platform for the active involvement of students in their own learning.
• It enables teachers to adjust teaching to take account of the results of assessment.
• It builds on student’s prior knowledge and experience in designing what is taught.
• It offers an opportunity to students to improve their work after they get the feedback.
• It helps students to support their peer group and vice-versa.

Tools and Techniques of Formative Assessment:

Tools and techniques for Formative Assessment are as follows

Tools	Techniques
Questions	Examination
Observation schedule	Assignments
Interview schedule	Quizzes and competitions
Checklist	Projects
Rating scale	Debates
Anecdotal records	Elocution
Document analysis	Group discussion
Tests and Inventories	Club activities
Portfolio analysis	Experiments, Research

 

Description of Some Tools of Formative Assessment
• Observation: It helps in identifying the various aspects of student’s personality development. Techniques like debate, elocution, group work, practical and laboratory activities, projects, etc. can be used.
• Rating Scale: It is used wherever a response or learner behavior is likely to be in a continuum from excellent to bad or from satisfactory to unsatisfactory. It can be used to assess individuals as well as groups.
• Anecdotal Record: It is a record of the conduct, thinking, skills and capabilities revealing significant features of his/her personality and prove very helpful in understanding child’s behavior in diverse situations.
• Portfolio: It is a cumulative record of growth and development of a skill or competence in an area over a period of time. It helps the students to demonstrate to others his/her learning progress. A Portfolio may include photographs, paintings, audio-video recordings and self-assessment sheet, peer assessment sheets.

Summative Assessment:
This is carried out at the end of a course of learning. It measures or ‘sums up’ how much a student has learnt from the course. It is usually a graded test. It certifies the level of achievement only at a given point of time.

Features of Summative Assessment:
Summative Assessment methods are the most traditional way of evaluating student work. Summative Assessment are often high stakes meaning they have a high point value.
• In summative assessment the technique used in examination system and the tools used is pen and test paper.
• This test may include objective type questions, short answer type questions and long answer type questions.
• Questions as a tool are primarily used in examination and to find out what children know, think and feel.
• A good test in English should be based on the objectives on teaching English in our schools i.e. development of listening, speaking, reading and writing skills in the students

METHODS OF TEACHING GRAMMAR

There are few methods of teaching of grammar:
1. Deductive Method
2. Inductive method
3. Inductive Deductive Method
4. Incidental Method

 

 

1. Deductive Method:

• This method is also called the traditional method.
• In this method, grammar is taken as an independent subject and taught with the help of a grammar book.
• The teacher uses a grammar text book. He first tells his students rules or definitions and then explains those with the help of examples then he gives exercise and ask his pupils to apply the rules.
• The learners are supposed to memories the definition of noun.
• This method is not very effective as it is against the principles of teaching and students find it boring and dull.

A. Advantages of Deductive Method
1. Average teacher can use this method in country like India.
2. It is based on the theory “From generalization to example”.
3. This method helps students to compare the ideas in grammar of mother tongue and second or first language.
4. The learner can try the grammatical questions very easily.
5. Learner can respond effectively and can explain rules, structures, etc.

B. Disadvantage of Deductive Method
1. This method makes learner learning about language.
2. This method cannot develop communicative ability among learners
3. The learners become inactive during classroom teaching
4. This method is not child centered but teacher centered.
5. In the classroom teaching there is hardly use of audio visual aids.

 

 

2. Inductive Method:

• Inductive method is also known as informal method.
• In Inductive method the teacher first presents or takes the example from the students then comes on theory of concept.
• This method implies teaching of grammar not by rules but by usage. Through continuous practice of using words while speaking, reading and writing, grammar can be taught and therefore learnt by students.
• This is done while teaching of text book or detailed translation of the text book is carried on Grammatical implications are taught simultaneously.
• Through this method, practical uses of grammatical rules are elicited. But sometimes this method becomes time consuming and may divert the attention of the students.

 

A. Advantage of Inductive Method
1. Inductive method is based on the theory “From example to generalization”. So it is very useful in classroom teaching.
2. This method helps students to understand the difference between particular notion in grammar of L1 and L2 / FL.
3. This method is child centered.
3. The learners learn the particular grammar point through use. First they have to deduce the meaning and later they generalize the form or structure.

B. Disadvantage of Inductive Method
1. This method is not useful in over crowed classes like India.
2. The institute must be ready to focus the language aspect, not the mark criteria. In this method the teacher has to use modern method of teaching language. Only an innovative teacher can use this method.

 

3. Inductive-Deductive Method:

Through this method student they formulate rules with the help of examples. Some steps of this method are as follows.
• Students are given some examples of similar type.
• Students try to find out similarities by analyzing or observing these examples.
• Students are asked to draw some conclusions.
• Then the teacher will give the rules and give new examples and ask her pupils to verify the rules.

This method of teaching grammar proves very successful and advantageous as it becomes practical, real and scientific. It follows all the maxims of teaching and pupils are not forced to cram the rules. This method also stimulates the power of thinking and reasoning.

Some shortcomings of this method are that it can be applied only to young learners. Moreover, this method is not complete in itself because sometimes students are unable to correlate examples with the topic.

4. Incidental Method:

This method is also known as correlation or reference method of teaching. This method helps students to correlate grammar with other related logical structures. Students gain a practical knowledge of grammatical rules.

Some disadvantages of this method are that it interferes with normal teaching Productive learning is less and sometimes creating or forming an incident related to a topic may be difficult for the teacher.

Importance of grammar in development of communication skill:

• Grammar helps in learning correct pronunciation.
• With good grammar spoken or written words gain their meaning and value.
• Knowledge of grammar improves skill of expression.
• Grammar is also helpful in increasing accuracy. Grammar frames the mind to habits of order and clearness and also to logic and rhetoric. So, grammar rules can help learners develop a habit of thinking logically and clearly.
• Grammar also helps in acquiring fluency in a particular language. The person will also learn how to organize and express the ideas in his mind without difficulty.

Importance of grammar in development of writing skill:

• The learner learns to write with correct punctuation and correct language and spellings.
• With the knowledge of grammar, parts of speech etc. the child develops an effective writing style.
• Expression of feelings, emotions, frustrations in an impressive manner is possible only by knowledge of grammatical rules, syntax, vocabulary etc.

LEARNING DISORDER IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE

LEARNING DISABILITIES: Some students have unique challenges that make learning in a traditional classroom difficult. e.g. visual or hearing impairments, attention deficit disorder, handicapped, chronic illnesses etc. Learning disorders that are most conspicuous usually revolve around reading, writing or calculations.

I. Dyslexia:
It is a learning disability in reading. Basic reading problems occur when there is difficulty in understanding the relationship between sounds, letters and words. Reading comprehension problems occur when there is inability to grasp the meaning of words, phrases and paragraphs.

II. Learning Disabilities in Maths (Dyscalculia):
Learning disabilities in Maths vary greatly depending on the child’s other strengths and weaknesses. A child’s ability to do Maths will be affected by language learning disability or a visual disorder or difficulty with sequencing, memory or organization.

III. Dysgraphia:
Learning disabilities in writing can involve the physical act of writing or the mental activity of comprehending and synthesizing information. Basic writing disorder refers to physical difficulty forming words and letters. Expressive writing disabilities indicate a struggle to organize thoughts on paper.

IV. Dyspraxia:
This type of disability refers to problems with movement and coordination in cutting, writing or gross motor skills such as running or jumping. A motor disability is sometimes referred to as ‘output’ activity meaning that it is related to the output of information from the brain in order to run, jump, write or cut something, the brain must be able to communicate with the necessary limbs to complete the action.

V. Aphasia/Dysphasia:
Language and communication learning disabilities involve the ability to understand or produce spoken language. Language is also considered an output activity because it requires organizing thoughts in the brain and calling upon the right words to verbally explain something or communicate with someone else.
Signs of language based learning disorder involve problems with verbal language skills, such as ability to retell a story and the fluency of speech as well as the ability to understand the meaning of words, parts of speech, directions etc.

VI. Auditory Processing Disorder:
An inability to distinguish subtle differences in sound or hearing sounds at the wrong speed make it difficult to relate to words and understand the basic concepts of reading and writing.

VII. Visual Processing Disorder:
Problems in visual perception include missing minor differences in shapes, reversing letters or numbers, skipping words, skipping lines and having problems in eye-hand co-ordination. Visual perception can affect gross and fine motor skills, reading comprehension and maths.

Note: Difficulty in school doesn’t always stem from a learning disability. Anxiety, depression, stressful events, emotional trauma make learning more of a challenge. In addition, ADHD and AUTISM sometimes co-occur or are confused with learning disabilities.

A. ADHD (Attention Deficiency Hyperactivity Disorder):
Attention Deficiency Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is not actually a learning disability but it can hamper or disrupt learning. Children with ADHD often have problems sitting still, staying focused, following instructions etc.

B. AUTISM:
Difficulty in mastering certain academic skills can be due to developmental disorders such as Autism and Asperger’s syndrome. Children with autism may have trouble in communicating, reading body language, learning basic skills, making friends and making eye-contact.

REMEDIAL TEACHING IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE

(i) Remedial teaching is the teaching or instructional work carried out to provide remedial measures to help the pupils to get rid of their common or specific weaknesses.
(ii) Thus, depending upon the general or specific nature of the weaknesses or learning difficulties of the pupils, one has to take appropriate steps for the organisation of remedial teaching for the needy pupils.
(iii) Pupils usually may have one or more than one of the following learning difficulties
• Poor memory.
• Short attention span and are easily distracted by other things.
• Relatively poor comprehensive power. Lack of learning motivation.
• Lack of self – confidence and relatively low self – expectation.
• Weak in problem – solving power.
• Fail to grasp information effectively and mix things up easily.
• Have difficulty in understanding new / abstract concepts.
• Need more time to complete assignments or tasks.
(iv) Remedial teachers should design diversified: teaching activities and adopt various teaching methods to help pupils develop their potential and remove the obstacles in learning.

(1) Objectives of Remedial Teaching:

Each pupil is different in terms of academic standards, classroom learning, learning ability and academic performance.
• The main objective of Remedial Teaching Program is to provide learning support to pupils who are not as good as theirs peers in performance.
• With the help of school curriculum and teaching strategies, a teacher provides learning activities and practical experiences to pupils according to their abilities and requirements.
• Teacher also designs individualized educational programs with intensive remedial support to help pupils consolidate their basic knowledge in different subjects, master the learning methods, strengthen their confidence and enhance the effectiveness of learning.
• Teacher should provide systematic training to develop pupils’ generic skills, including interpersonal relationship, communication, problem – solving, self – management, self – learning independent thinking, creativity and the use of information technology.
• Remedial teaching lays the foundation for pupils’ life – long learning, helps them develop positive attitudes and values, as well as prepares them for future studies and career.

(I) Principles of Helping Pupils’ with Learning: Difficulties Principles of helping pupils’ with learning difficulties are

i. Teaching Preparation- Before preparing their lessons, teachers should identify pupils’ diverse learning needs as soon as possible, so that they may design appropriate teaching plans to facilitate pupils’ effective learning.
ii. Devise Various Learning Activities- Teachers must devise different learning activities with the same teaching objective to develop pupils varied abilities and skills in problem solving. It is more effective for teachers to adopt a series of relevant and simple teaching activities than assigning one long teaching activity.
iii. Design Meaningful Learning Situations- Teachers should specifically design meaningful learning situations, language environment (especially for English), games or activities so as to provide personal learning experiences for pupils and stimulate their interest and initiative in learning.
iv. Teaching Approaches- Teachers should give concrete and valuable examples before proceeding to abstract concepts by way of simple and easy steps at a pace in line with the learning abilities of pupils. Teachers should encourage pupils’ active participation by more frequent use of teaching aids, games and activities. They can also make use of information technology and all the teaching resources available to help pupils understand the main points.
v. Provide Clear Instructions- Pupils with learning difficulties are less competent in understanding written language. Therefore, teachers should give pupils’ short and clear instructions to avoid confusion. They must explain clearly the arrangement of each learning activity.

vi. Summarize the Main Points- At the course of teaching, teachers should always sum up the main points in teaching and write the key phrases on the board to enhance pupils’ audio and visual memories. Teachers can guide their pupils to link up the knowledge they learn from class with their life experiences so as to enhance the effectiveness of learning.
vii. Enhance Learning Interest and Motivation- Pupils’ with learning difficulties may lose their interest in learning. Therefore, teachers should adapt the curriculum to meet the needs of pupils. With fewer pupils in the Remedial Teaching Program, teachers can design interesting activities coupled with reward scheme to stimulate pupils’ interest.
viii. Encourage Pupils’ Active Participation in Class-Activities Pupils with learning difficulties usually lack self- confidence and are more passive in class. They seldom ask questions or express their views. Remedial teachers should patiently encourage active participation in class. Pleasurable learning experiences may help enhance pupils’ interest in learning
ix. Focus on the Learning Process- Teaching should not only focus on the transmission of knowledge. It is also important to see that pupils are benefited from the entire learning process. Teachers should provide ample opportunities in class for pupils to practice and think what they have learnt and allow them to solve problems by different means. Teachers should also carefully observe the performances of pupils.
x. Show Concern for the Performances or Individual- Pupils Teachers should carefully observe the learning class. Whenever process of individual pupils in necessary, they should provide individualized remedial teaching before and after class, so that they can remove their learning obstacles as soon as possible. When marking assignments, teachers should take note of the common errors of pupils and deliver the correct concepts and knowledge to them promptly.

(2) Curriculum Adaptation:

1. Teachers should adapt the curriculum to accommodate the learning characteristics and abilities of pupils.
2. Teacher should set some easy teaching objectives to acquire knowledge.
3. Teaching should not be directed by text books which should not be taken as the school curriculum.
4. Schools should classify the teaching content into core and non – core learning aspects according to the teaching object and pupils’ abilities.
5. Core learning aspects require in – depth studies and application whereas materials in the non – core or advanced learning aspects may be streamlined or appropriately selected for teaching.
6. Teachers should be encouraged to adopt recommendations on cross – curricular teaching by linking up related teaching areas flexibly so that more time can be spared for effective activities and learning.
7. Teachers should be capable to design materials of different standards which could be taken from the internet, newspapers, magazines and references provided by the Education Department.

Strategies Remedial Teaching:

1. Individualized Educational Program (IEP): To fulfill the learning needs of individual pupil, the Individualized Educational Program (IEP) aims to reinforce the foundation of learning, help pupils overcome their learning difficulties and develop their potentials. Individualized Educational Program should include short – term and long – term teaching objectives, learning steps, activities and reviews to ensure that the program is implemented effectively. Teachers must evaluate the effectiveness of the work and try to gather opinions of pupils for improvisation and betterment.

2. Peer Support Program:
Teachers may train up pupils who perform better in a certain subject to become ‘little teachers’ and who will be responsible for helping schoolmates with learning difficulties in group teaching and self – study sessions as well as outside class. Peer support program helps pupils reinforce their knowledge, and develop their communication and co – operation skills as well as good interpersonal relationship.

3. Reward Scheme:
To motivate pupils, teachers must implement reward scheme which focuses on guiding pupils to set their own objectives and plans, and positively reinforcing their good performance. To design the rewards, teachers must take note of the following
• Set clear and specific targets.
• Set achievable objectives.
• Give diversified rewards to accommodate pupils’ interest; give rewards instantly.
• Review and revise the reward scheme regularly.
• Invite parents / guardians to help children improve their work.

4. Handling Pupils’ Behavior Problems:
Teachers should observe the following when dealing with the behavior problems of pupils:
• Always observe the performance of pupils in class and their behavior in groups.
• Establish close relationship with pupils, develop mutual trust and listen carefully to what they say.
• Help pupils understand the effect of their behavior on the other as well as their own selves.
• Keep in close contact with parents to find out the cause of pupils’ behavior problems.
• Help pupils build up self – confidence and a healthy self – image.
• Give positive reinforcement to pupils’ good behavior, and do not pay undue attention to their misbehavior.
• Do not try to change all the deviant behavior of pupils atones.
• Refer the cases to counselors / teachers for follow – up action if the behavior problems of pupils continue or become serious.

(3) Development of Generic Skills:

Teachers should help pupils develop good learning habits and attitudes, such as complete the assignments tidily, keep their promise and be responsible and disciplined. A constructive attitude is the foundation for life – long self – learning and it helps enhance pupils’ learning effectiveness.
Teachers should train pupils to establish good interpersonal relationship so, as to facilitate effective communication and collaboration as well as to enhance the team spirit of pupils. Pupils can be taught to solve problems by different methods. Tools or by drawing insight from their past experiences to develop pupils’ flexibility, creativity and independent thinking.

 

Function of Language

 

ROLE OF LISTENING: FUNCTION OF LANGUAGE

Listening:
• Listening comes first in the natural way of learning a language and forms the foundation for communicative competence in the new language.
• Listening is receiving language through ears.
• It is an aural input which involves a sender, a message and a receiver.
• When we listen something, we have to identify sounds of speech and process them into words and sentences.
• Speech, rhythm and pronunciation etc. are learnt through listening to appropriate language models.
• Listening in any language requires active engagement of learners, focus and attention.
• According to International Listening Association, “Listening is the process of receiving constructing meaning from and responding to spoken and / or non – verbal messages.

(A) Types of Listening:

The two main types of listening are as follow:
1. Discriminative Listening: It is first developed at a very early age and is the most basic form of listening. It does not involve the understanding of the meaning of words and phrases, but merely the different sounds that are produced.
2. Comprehensive Listening: It involves understanding the messages that are being communicated and it is fundamental to all listening sub – types. In order to be able to use comprehensive listening, the listener first needs appropriate vocabulary and language skills.

(B) Essential Conditions for Listening Skills:

Some essential conditions for listening skills are as follow :
• The learner should be attentive during the listening process.
• The volume of speech or sound should be appropriate.
• The hearing organs of the listener should be normal.
• Listen without judging the other person or mentally criticizing the things the other person is telling.
• The learner should be able to understand the meaning of words conveyed through the sounds.
• The interest of the learner also affects the language learning process.

(C) Aims of Listening Skills:

The primary aims of developing listening skills are to:
• Understand and infer concepts, ideas, facts etc. by merely listening.
• Identify the speaker’s purpose and tone.
• Facilitate verbal interaction between people.
• Lay the foundation of learning a language.

Strategies to Focus on Listening Process:

1. Integrative Meta Cognitive Strategies:
These strategies can be divided into three categories:

(i) Before Listening
• Set a purpose or decide in advance what to listen for.
• Decide if more linguistic background or knowledge is needed.
• Determine whether to enter the text from top down (attend to overall meaning) or from the bottom up (focus on the words and phrases).

(ii) During Listening
• Verify predictions and check for inaccurate guesses.
• Decide what is and what is not important to understand.
• Listen / view again to check comprehension.
• Ask for help.

(iii) After Listening
• Evaluate comprehension and strategy use.
• Evaluate comprehension in a particular tasks or area.
• Evaluate overall progress in listening and in particular types of listening tasks.
• Decide if the strategies used were appropriate for the purpose and for the task.
• Modify strategies if necessary.

Using Authentic Materials and Situations:
Authentic materials and situations prepare students for types of listening; they will need to do when using the language outside the classroom.

One – Way Communication:
Radio and television programmes, public address announcements (airports, train / bus stations, and stores), speeches and lectures, telephone customer service recordings are means of one – way communication.
• Help students identify the listening goal; to obtain specific information; to decide whether to continue listening; to understand most or the entire message.
• Help students outline predictable sequences in which information may be presented: who – what – when – where (news stories); who – flight number – arriving / departing – gate number (airport announcements); “for (function), press (number)”(telephone recordings).
• Help students to identify key words / phrases to listen for.

Two – Way Communication:
In authentic two – way communication, the listener focuses on the speaker’s meaning rather than the speaker’s language. The focus shifts to language only when meaning is not clear.

Language input comes in the form of
• Teacher talk
• Listening activities
• Reading passages
• Language heard and read outside the class

All these materials give learners opportunity to begin producing language themselves.
• Content includes information about any topic be it Weather report or academic.
• Form can be an input which focuses on how to use the language or it can be source on vocabulary, pronunciations and grammar.

ROLE OF SPEAKING: FUNCTION OF LANGUAGE

Speaking Skill:
• Speaking is a productive or expressive skill in oral mode and a crucial part of learning.
• Speech is normally produced by manipulating the air-stream coming out of the lungs, speaking is an act of conversing or expressing one’s thoughts and feelings in spoken language.
• Speaking often implies conveying information. It may be from an informal remark to a scholarly presentation to a formal address.

A. Types of Speaking Situation:
There are three kinds of speaking situations in which we find ourselves:
1. Interactive: It includes face to face conversations and telephone calls in which we alternate between listening and speaking.
2. Partially Interactive: Speaking situation can be a public speech where the convention is that the audience does not interrupt the speech.
3. Non – Interactive: Few speaking situations can be totally non – interactive such as when recording a speech for a radio broadcast.
It has been found that although fear of speaking is common, studies show that ability to speaking can be enhanced by improving speaking skills.

B. Essential Conditions of Speaking Skills:
• Effective speaking concerns about being able to speak in a public context with confidence and clarity.
• Some aspects of effective speaking are as follow
• Accent.
• Finding one’s voice.
• The effect of breath on voice and speech.
• Vocal production In this three core elements of vocal production are volume, clarity and variety
• Appropriate gestures while speaking also make it effective.

C. Aims of Speaking Skills:
• Develop the habit of speaking sentences clearly and comprehensibly.
• Be able to express feelings and emotions in speech or statements.
• Be able to critically evaluate ideas and beliefs of others and to draw logical conclusions.
• Enable the use of correct words, spellings, stress, rhyme, fluency, pause and appropriate phonetic transcription.
• Make the learner a good and confident speaker.

D. Strategies for Developing Speaking Skills:
• Speaking is a crucial part of language learning process. Effective instructors teach students speaking strategies which can help them to expand their knowledge of the language and their confidence in using it.
• Sometimes learners are asked to build up a stock of minimal responses to be used in different types of exchanges.
• These minimal responses are predictable and useful for beginners.
• Students can be made aware of different scripts for different situations like greetings or compliments or apologies.
• Through interactive activities instructors can give students practice in managing and varying the language that different scripts contain. . Speaking skill can also be developed by creating an authentic practice environment within the classroom.
• Such type of language environment arouses confidence in even shy students.
• Such practice helps students even outside the classroom where communication is required.

Using Minimal Responses:
• Sometimes to encourage learners, who lack in the ability to participate in oral interaction, is to help them build up a stock of minimal responses that they can use in different types of exchanges.
• This situation enables a learner to focus on what the other participant is saying, without having to simultaneously plan a response.

Recognizing Scripts:
• Some communication situations are associated with a predictable set of spoken exchanges , a script, greetings, apologies, compliments, invitations and other functions that are influenced by social and cultural norms often follow patterns or scripts.
• The transactional exchanges involved in activities such as obtaining information and making a purchase. In these scripts, the relationship between a speaker turn and the one that follows it can often be anticipated.
• Instructors can help students develop speaking ability by making them aware of the scripts for different situations so that they can predict what they will hear and what they will need to say in response.
• Through interactive activities, instructors can give students practice in managing and varying the language that different script contain.

Using Language to Talk about Language:
• Language learners are often too embarrassed or shy to say anything when they do not understand another speaker or when they realize that a conversation partner has not understood them.
• Instructors can help students overcome this reticence by assuring them that misunderstandings and need for clarification can occur in any type of interaction.
• Clarification phrases help the students to respond positively. Instructors can create an authentic practice environment within the classroom itself through such strategies. Such situations arouse confidence in students to manage various communication situations that they may encounter outside the classroom.

E. Suggestions for Developing Speaking and Listening Skills:
• The class should be divided into small groups.
• Instructors/teachers serve as a good model for the learners. Learners generally imitate their teachers. Thus, pronunciation stress, rhythm and intonation of the teacher should be good.
• At the primary level, speaking activities should include greetings, informal requests, asking personal information, sharing stories, experience and interests.
• Language skill can be learnt by activities through or based on situations.
• Individual attention must be given to learners.
• One or two periods per section be allotted for oral conversation exclusively.
• The teachers should have a sympathetic outlook towards listening and speaking shortcomings of learners.
• Language is the ultimate means of communication.
• An agreed code exists in all languages according to the culture of its country.

F. Various Uses of Listening and Speaking Skills:
I. Children Use their Listening skills to:
• Understand concepts, facts, ideas, feelings etc.
• Understand particular sounds that are intimately connected with certain objects.
• Focus on and try to comprehend the speaker’s meaning,
• Understand the characteristics of English speech and sounds, including stress and intonation patterns.
• Understand the correct pronunciation of words.

II. Children Use their Speaking Skills to:
• Develop and enhance their vocabulary.
• Express their feelings or views.
• Get fluency and proficiency in the language.
• Improve their diction and learn from mistakes.
• Non – verbal actions such as facial expressions and gestures that accompany speech help to make child understand the feelings of others.

III. Functions of a Language:
Functions of a Language are:
• Develops four skills (LSRW – Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing)
• Verbal interaction.
• The expressive function.
• Social function and Cultural function.
• Communicative approach helps in understanding phonemes (pronunciation) and morphemes (spellings) and grammar.

G. How Children Use it as a Tool?
• Children use a form of language to communicate their thoughts, needs, desires and express their feelings.
• They maintain their relation with the society and share their culture by interacting with the help of their language.
• Children apply the words and sentences listened at places to communicate with others. They come across with their aesthetic values in the form of written records in terms of stories or poems.
• Children use words as tool by which they store information.
• Children develop their thinking abilities with the use of language which helps in generating new ideas.

PRINCIPLE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

Language: is a medium through which one can express one’s ideas, thoughts, feelings etc. Different languages are spoken in the world.
• It is very difficult to ascertain how these languages originated. It is believed that people started conveying message through signals, postures, gestures etc.
• Language is a human system of communication that uses arbitrary signals such as voice, sounds, gestures and written symbols.
• According to Edward Sapir, “Language is a purely human and non – instinctive method of communicating ideas, • emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols”.

(A) Characteristics of a Language:
1. Language is a Vital Part of Growth Process: It is a social act, a means of adjustment to control over other people, Language exists in a society, it is a means of nourishing and developing culture and establishing human relations.
2. Language is Symbolic: Language consists of various symbols that are employed to denote some objects, occurrences or meaning.
3. Language is Systematic: Although language symbolic yet its symbols are arranged in a particular system. All languages have phonological and grammatical system and within a system there are several subsystems.
4. Language is Arbitrary: There is no inherent relation between the words of a language and their meaning or the ideas conveyed by them.
5. Language is Productive and Creative: The structural elements of human language can be combined to produce new utterances, never heard before according to the needs of a society.

(B) Aims of Language Teaching:
• Ability to understand the speaker’s language.
• Ability to read along with understanding.
• Ability to express fluently and diversely using different skills.
• Ability to present or write view in a coherent manner.
• Ability to learn technological language used in teaching of other subjects such as music, computers or sports etc.
• Ability to understand the scientific aspect of a language.
• Development of creative skills.
• Development of a learner’s sensitivity towards national issues, cultural heritage and different aspects contemporary life.

(C) Importance of Language:
• Language is our primary source of communication. It is the method through which we share our ideas and thoughts with others.
• The three phases of human knowledge preservation, transmission and advancement are possible only with the help of a language.
• Language is also the best source of social and cultural development.

(I) Importance of English Language:
Study and use of English language is important in India as it is the most common foreign language. Everyone needs to learn the language in order to get in touch on an international level.

According to University Grants Commission (UGC),
English is a language which is rich in literature – humanistic, scientific and technical. It under sentimental urges, it should give up English language, we would cut ourselves off from the living stream of ever growing knowledge”.
• Some more reasons of its importance are as follow
• English is also the primary language of press, internet. More books and newspapers are written in English than in any other language.
• English is the only language where maximum resources are available which makes it easier to learn.
• English, being an international language, makes travel and business convenient to others.
• In India, English is regarded as the second language so its importance cannot be undermined.

(E) Principles of Language Teaching:
1. Theory of Motivation and Interest: Motivation is an important factor in language learning particularly in learning a second language. English resource and text books should be selected according to the interest and aptitudes of students. The teacher can arouse pupils’ interest in a number of ways and language learning can be made increasingly interesting. It can be done with the help of charts, pictures, flash cards, models, black board sketches and other similar visual devices.
2. Theory of Imitation: According to many psychologists, the child learns a language through imitation. Good speech is the result of imitating good pronunciation and vocabulary. Imitation followed by intensive practice helps in the mastery of the language system.
3. Theory of Habit Formation: ‘Language learning’ according to Palmer, “is essentially habit forming process, a process during which we acquire new habits”. Teacher can make language pattern as habit through intensive pattern practice in a variety of situations. In language learning habits of speech, listening, reading, writing, correct pronunciation should be formed.

4. Theory of Exercise (Practice and Drill): According to BF Skinner, psychological experiments have proved that practicing and drilling play an important part in language teaching. Teacher should make sure that repetitions of things at proper intervals should be done.
5. Theory of Individual Differences: Every child is unique and different from others. In language teaching we have to keep in mind that learners possess different abilities, personalities and belong to different backgrounds. So, stimulus need of every learner will be different. Teaching has to be done keeping in mind the individuals differences and problems arising out of it. The teachers should adopt different tact’s, strategies and multiple approaches to make learning meaningful.
6. Theory of Using Mother: Mother tongue should be sparingly and judiciously used while teaching English. Of course, at an early stage, some explanations will have to be given in pupils’ mother tongue but at later stages inputs from the targeted language in a simple graded manner can help in minimizing the influence of mother tongue.
7. Correlation with Life: English should be practiced in everyday situations with which children can easily identify. This way meaning will be clarified and reinforced.
8. Theory of Oral Approach: Speech motivates the learners to learn. Speech must precede reading and writing. Introduction to lessons should begin orally as learning to speak a language is always the shortest way to learning to read and write it.
9. Theory of Selection and Gradation: Items of learning should be presented according to the order of ease. It should not be too rigid grading. There should be structural and vocabulary grading. Essential vocabulary and basic structures of a language should be taught first.

(F) Maxims Used while Teaching English Language:
1. Known to the Unknown: Teaching should be carried on what the students know either in their native language or in English. It is considered that old knowledge lays the foundation of new knowledge. e.g. pronoun in English grammar should be taught when the learner has a knowledge of nouns.
2. Simple to Complex: Simple things and vocabulary should be taught first before proceeding to complex structures or vocabulary items. By learning simple things learners feel motivated and confident that would certainly help in better understanding of complex things.
3. Concrete to Abstract: Concrete things are real things which can be seen and felt by our senses. Abstract things can be just imagined. Teaching done with the help of concrete objects lasts for a longer period e.g. a learner can imagine about a golden apple only if he has seen an apple.
4. Analysis to Synthesis: When teaching is done from detailed teaching to summarizing we go from analysis to synthesis e.g. if a learner is taught different tenses with examples, he is able to understand sentence structures easily.
5. Induction to Deduction: in induction method, we give some examples first then try to reach on a conclusion. In deduction, first of all a rule is explained than some examples are given. Teaching should always precede from induction to deduction. Examples speak louder than language explanation. Such examples can help the students learn much better the complicated concepts.
6. Psychological to Logical: While teaching, the interests, aptitudes, capacities and difficulty level of the learners should be kept in mind. e.g. vocabulary and sentence structure of a language should be taught keeping in mind the difficulty level of the learners and then they could be arranged and explained in a logical manner.
7. Relate form to Meaning and Contextualize: All class activities should be meaningful, whatever activity the students are involved in, the students should be able to understand the meaning of what they hear, say, read or write. Teach new vocabulary items in context.

LEARNING AND AQUISITION

(1) Concept of Learning:
Learning is a process of acquiring new skills or knowledge and improving the existing skills also. An individual undergoes a change in his/her knowledge and behavior on account of learning. Everyone is different from one another in acquiring skills, means everyone has different rate or speed of learning. Certain factors such as environment, learner’s ability and motivation, teacher’s capabilities and ways of imparting knowledge all impact a person’s learning experience.
The Critical Period: Hypothesis states that the first few years of life constitute the time during which language develops readily and after which language acquisition is much more difficult and ultimately less successful.

(A) Types of Learning:
1. Motor Learning: Most of our activities in day to day life refer to motor activities e.g. walking, running, driving, climbing etc. All these activities involve muscular co – ordination.
2. Verbal Learning: This type of learning involves the language we speak, the communication methods we adopt e.g. signs, pictures, symbols, words, sounds etc are the tools used in such activities.
3. Conceptual Learning: in this form of learning, we require higher order mental processes like thinking, reasoning, intelligence. With the use of these, child learns different concepts.

(B) Factors Affecting Learning:
(1) Factors Related to Learner
• Learner’s motivation determines the intensity of learning.
• Learner’s efficiency or mental capacity.
• Learner’s interest and aptitude towards the subject.
• Learner’s general health.
• Learner’s attention, readiness and will power.

(2) Factors Related to Teacher are
• Teacher’s command over the subject.
• Teacher’s way of communicating,
• Teacher’s personality and attitude towards learners.
• Teacher’s behaviour with students.

(3) Factors Related to the Environment, Teaching Materials and Human Resource are
• Conducive environment to learning.
• Structure and size of classrooms.
• Availability of appropriate subject material to facilitate the learning process.
• Home environment of the learner.

(2) Concept of Acquisition:
When language is learnt naturally and without any systematic practice, it is called acquisition. The term ‘learning and acquisition’ are complementary. Learners acquire language when it is used in natural environment.

(A) Language Acquisition:
• Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive, produce and use words to understand and communicate.
• This capacity involves the picking up of diverse capacities including syntax, phonetics and an extensive vocabulary.
• This language might be vocal as with speech or manual as in sign.
• Language acquisition usually refers to first language acquisition, which studies infants’ acquisition of their native language, rather than second language acquisition, which deals with acquisition (in both children and adults) of additional languages.
• The capacity to acquire and use language is a key aspect that distinguishes humans from other organisms. While many forms of animal communication exist, they have a limited range of non – syntactically structured vocabulary tokens that lack cross cultural variation between groups.

(B) Concepts Associated with Acquisition and Learning:
(i) Piaget’s Concept: This concept states that learning starts with adaptation, assimilation and accommodation. He also said that classification was also important to learning language.
• Certain words and sounds needed to be grouped together to better understand and use them in speech.
• Through assimilation, the learner takes the information and changes it to make it suitable for him.

(ii) Concept of Chomsky: Chomsky states that every person possesses a Language Learning Device or (LLD) which is a hypothetical tool hard wired into the brain.
• It helps children in rapidly learning and understanding a language.
• He also states that all children are born with an understanding of the rules of language; they simply need to acquire vocabulary.

(iii) Vygotsky’s Concept of Learning and Acquisition: Vygotsky was of the opinion that social interaction played an important role in the development of cognition.
• According to him, ‘community’ also plays a central role in the process of making meaning and learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organized, specifically human psychological function.
• In other words, higher mental processes in the individual have their origin in social processes. He places more emphasis on the role of language in cognitive development.

(iv) Pavlov’s Concept of Learning: Pavlov propounded a new theory of learning known as Classical Conditioning, according to him classical conditioning is a reflexive or automatic type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus.
• ‘Classical conditioning’ is based on habit formation Pavlov was of the view that humans learn due to some stimulus.

(3) Language Development in Children
Communication between people who know each other and respect each other is one of the most important factors in language development of the child.
Children need to learn a language in order to understand things around them.
It is through language that they express their feelings and communicate with others. With the development of language only, the children are able to represent and express new ideas and complex matters also. When children are not able to put their feelings into words, they are very disturbed and this situation can reduce or damage their self – esteem.

(A) Initial Stage of Language Development
Desire to communicate starts at birth. Babies learn quickly how to get their needs met by crying, cooing and making eye – contact with their immediate family.
• A child’s overall development and his mental health is affected greatly by his ability to communicate in a variety of ways.
• Words are the most important tool through which a child gets connected to his family as well as to the rest of the world.
• Through words only a child stores information and parts with his feelings and experiences.
• Children as young as 3 years of age already possess a remarkable knowledge of language structure and syntax which is so complex and precise that it must challenge any known learning theory to account for its acquisition.

(B) Actual Stage of Language Development
Initial years of childhood can be called preparation time of learning a language.
• The language development starts with the oral expressions which a child uses to express himself. He / She learns a language through words, sentences and then complex structures.
• After a child starts going to school, child develops ability to read as well as write. Slowly, the child becomes proficient in all types of learning skills from listening and speaking to reading and writing.
• Language development thus helps him not only in using language as an expression tool but through proficiency in language the child becomes knowledgeable and changes into an all developed personality.

(C) Development of Vocabulary
In the initial years of growing up child’s vocabulary also grows manifold. Children typically understand or recognize more words than they usually speak.
When the child is one or one and a half years old, he understands more words than he speaks.

Table showing vocabulary of children in different age groups:

Children’s Age	Children’s Vocabulary
From birth to 8 months	0
From 9th month to one year upto one and a half years	Three to four words 10 to 12 words
Upto 2 years	272 words
Upto 2 years to 6 months	450 words
Upto 3 years	1000 words
Upto 3 years and 6 months	1250 words
Upto 4 years	1600 words
Upto 5 years	2100 words
Upto 11 years	50000 words
Upto 14 years	80000 words
16 years and ahead	More than 1 lakh (million) words

(D) Vocabulary Learning:
Vocabulary learning of a child in different age group is shown below
• Child reaches school age and heads to kindergarten, he/she will have a vocabulary of around 2000 words. Talking and reading are a very good source of vocabulary development in a child.
• Parents or other family members must talk to the child about his/her day at school, about teachers, about books she/he checked out at the libraries or something funny that happened at school etc.
• It is important to encourage children’s vocabulary development so that they develop the language and literacy skills necessary to succeed in school.

(E) Strategies to Increase Vocabulary:
Some tips or strategies to increase child’s vocabulary are as follows
• Follow your child’s lead. If parents talk about what interests the child, he/she may pay attention and learn new words.
• Don’t bombard one child with new words the child should be given time to make a response and use his/her vocabulary to express feelings.
• Children need to hear a word repeatedly. Along with speaking new word, some actions or gestures should follow. It really helps in acquiring new word easily.

English Grammar Previous Year Questions Topic Wise

PRINCIPLE OF LANGUAGE TEACHING (PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS)

Q1. Which of the following is suitable for making students responsible for their own learning?
(a) Using technology to chat and network
(b) Encouraging students to ask more and more questions
(c) Giving a lot of homework, project work and assignments to improve language skills of students
(d) Discouraging students from making decisions about how they learn best

Q2. The Constructivist Approach to learning means
(a) teaching rules of grammar and consolidating through rigorous practice
(b) helping learners acquire new vocabulary by studying literature intensively
(c) teaching new words and structures using a variety of audio – visual aids followed by practice through drill
(d) involving the students in a variety of activities to encourage them to learn new words and structures by accommodating them with those that they have already learnt through a process of discovery

Q3. When learners are engaged in a pair activity, taking on roles of a doctor and a patient, the activity is called
(a)declamation
(b)simulation
(c)exchanging notes
(d) real activity

 

Q4. Gender stereotypes and bias among learners can be discouraged by
(a) using textbooks which do nor perpetuate such beliefs
(b) creating an open and encouraging atmosphere in a mixed class
(c) pressuring girls to learn cooking
(d) enabling all learners to cook and sew irrespective of gender

 

Q5. A child – centered classroom is characterized
(a) very passive teachers and active learners
(b) a variety of learning activities for the learners
(c) children sitting in the center of the classroom
(d) children teaching other children under the supervision of the teacher.

Q6. When a teacher uses lessons in Science and Social Science to teach language, such an approach can be termed as
(a) language across the curriculum
(b) objective language teaching
(c) pluralistic language teaching
(d) discipline – wise language teaching

Q7. After reading a story on fish, if a teacher asks children to answer. . . . “Imagine you are a fish in a pond. What do you see around you?” This is an example of
(a) multiple choice question
(b) comprehension question
(c) cloze type question
(d) open – ended question

 

Q8. Constructivist approach to language teaching expects the teacher to
(a) help construct knowledge using their experiences
(b) give pre – constructed knowledge to learners
(c) construct his own curriculum
(d) fake learners prepare their own textbooks

Q9. “You ask, what has my government done for you?
I can answer in two words: A lot!”
The question put here is
(a) Rhetorical
(b) A prompt
(c) Stylized
(d) Explanatory

Q10. ‘Gender sensitization’ in the school curriculum implies
(a) children should be differentiated as boys and girls
(b) sex education from primary school onwards
(c) respectful approach towards defining gender roles
(d) promote co – education in high school

 

Q11. The ‘question’ How will I achieve my teaching goal? In the design of a language instruction, which helps the teacher to ‘keep the lesson on target’ is/are the
(a) objectives
(b) methodology
(c) evaluation
(d) documentation

 

Q12. _____________________ is the particular way a learner prefers to learn a second or foreign language.
(a) Cognitive style
(b) Cognitive process
(c) Behaviorist approach
(d) Literal approach

 

Q13. The focus is on using the language rather than analysis of the language and grammar is taught implicitly rather than explicitly.
(a) Direct approach
(b) Communicative approach
(c) Grammar – translation method
(d) Structural method

 

Q14. Constructivist approach to learning does not emphasize
(a) that authentic task in a meaningful context should be used
(b) teaching as the transmission of knowledge from the enlightened to the unenlightened
(c) that learners construct knowledge for themselves
(d) knowledge construction instead of knowledge reproduction

 

Q15. A learner – centered class should not be one where
(a) the learners should do the given exercise silently as silence is better for learning to occur
(b) the learner’s personal views and feelings are taken into consideration
(c) the learners are intrinsically interested and are inclined to explore
(d) the teacher acts more as another participant in the learning process

 

Solutions

S1. Ans.(b)
Sol. When teachers ask higher‐order questions and encourage explanations, they help their students develop important critical thinking skills. By modeling good questioning and encouraging students to ask questions of them, teachers can help students learn independently and improve their learning.

S2. Ans.(d)
Sol. The Constructivist Approach to learning means involving the students in a variety of activities to encourage them to learn new words and structures by accommodating them with those that they have already learnt through a process of discovery.

S3. Ans.(b)
Sol. When learners are engaged in a pair activity, taking on roles of a doctor and a patient, the activity is called simulation.

S4. Ans.(b)
Sol. Gender stereotypes and bias among learners can be discouraged by creating an open and encouraging atmosphere in a mixed class.

S5. Ans.(b)
Sol. A child – centered classroom is characterized a variety of learning activities for the learners.

S6. Ans.(a)
Sol. When a teacher uses lessons in Science and Social Science to teach language, such an approach can be termed as language across the curriculum.

S7. Ans.(d)
Sol. Open-ended questions allow to collect qualitative answers from customers that are, for the most part, full of information. By asking an open-ended question, you are giving your customers the opportunity to answer whatever they like, without limiting or influencing them with predefined answers. The given example is an example of open – ended question.

 

S8. Ans.(a)
Sol. Constructivist approach to language teaching expects the teacher to help construct knowledge using their experiences.

S9. Ans.(c)
Sol. Stylized

S10. Ans.(c)
Sol. ‘Gender sensitization’ in the school curriculum implies respectful approach towards defining gender roles.

S11. Ans.(a)
Sol. Learning objectives are brief statements that describe what students will be expected to learn by the end of school year, course, unit, lesson, project, or class period. In many cases, learning objectives are the interim academic goals that teachers establish for students who are working toward meeting more comprehensive learning standards.

S12. Ans.(d)
Sol. Cognitive style is the particular way a learner prefers to learn a second or foreign language.

S13. Ans.(b)
Sol. The communicative approach is based on the idea that learning a language successfully comes through having to communicate real meaning. When learners are involved in real communication, their natural strategies for language acquisition will be used, and this will allow them to learn to use the language.

S14. Ans.(c)
Sol. Constructivist approach to learning does not emphasize that learners construct knowledge for themselves.

S15. Ans.(c)
Sol. A learner – centered class should not be one where the learners are intrinsically interested and are inclined to explore.

ROLE OF LISTENING AND SPEAKING: FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE (PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS)

Q1. The spoken skills in a language teaching classroom can be developed through
(a) Enabling activities with a focus on conversation skills leading to communicative competence
(b) Group activities where learners can talk in whichever language they would like to
(c) Engaging in small talk as confident aggressive learners
(d) Encourage play with no other objectives

Q2. Ria is unable to pronounce the words ‘smile’ and ‘school’ clearly. As her teacher, what will you do?
(a) Humiliate Ria by isolating her and asking her to repeat the words
(b) Asking the entire class to repeat the words and appreciating Ria when she repeats them correctly
(c) Make Ria repeat the ‘words’ many times
(d) Make Ria understand the meaning and the sound pattern and get the class as a whole to listen to these words through an audio – visual medium

Q3. Telling interesting stories to young learners is primarily meant for improving their
(a) writing skills
(b) speaking skills
(c) listening skills
(d) reading skills

Q4. The main purpose of using oral drill is
(a) to assess the comprehension skills of learners
(b) to improve pronunciation and accuracy
(c) to enhance the speaking skills of leaners
(d) to improve retention capacity of learners

Q5. ‘Decorum’ in spoken language pertains to
(a) correct grammatical usage
(b) voice quality or loudness
(c) clarity and purity of style
(d) appropriate gestures
Q6. Speaker 1 : Where are you from?
Speaker 2 : Kashmir
During the assessment of students’ speaking – listening skills, marks would be deducted during this exchange for
(a) the first speaker
(b) the second speaker
(c) Both of them
(d) Neither of them
Q7. A fellow traveler at the airport has just finished reading the newspaper and you want him/her to pass it to you. Choose how you will make the request?
(a) Pass me the paper
(b) Pass me the paper, please
(c) Can you pass me the paper
(d) Could you possibly pass me the newspaper?
Q8. Read this exchange
Teacher : Do you like to read a story book instead?
Student : Yes
Teacher : Yes, please Here,
The teacher
(a) confirms the student’s request
(b) offers an alternative language activity
(c) relates language function with politeness
(d) makes a polite suggestion to start roading
Q9. “You ask, what is our aim? I can answer in one word: victory”. Churchill asks a question and then goes on to answer it. Such a question is
(a) a prompt
(b) explanatory
(c) rhetorical
(d) stylized

Q10. Read the following exchange
Speaker 1 : Have you been to Indore?
Speaker 2 : Who?
Speaker 1 : To Indore in Madhya Pradesh
Speaker 2 : Umm . . . . . . I am not sure.
During the assessment of student’s speaking skills, marks would be deducted during this exchange for
(a) the first speaker
(b) the second speaker
(c) Both of them
(d) Neither of them

Q11. A student recommends the reading of the latest best seller, saying it is very interesting. You listen, trying to make out whether the student’s observation is sincere or not. This type of listening can be described
(a) critical
(b) comprehension
(c) sympathetic
(d) active
Q12. Students learning a language often lack confidence when speaking due to the language’s unique pronunciation rules. One way to overcome this problem is
(a) children reading aloud in class
(b) using game like activities which require verbal Interaction in classroom
(c) conducting special speech therapy with a counsellor
(d) correcting errors whenever they happen
Q13. Which activity best supports the practice of speaking skills?
(a) Students independently research a topic and present a formal report
(b) Teacher is giving purposeful dictation by integrating it with a spoken activity
(c) Individually, students read a case – study and draft a response.
(d) Students tell their version of a story based on some hints and apply it to a problem – solving situation
Q14. Develop a resource box for class I. Teacher gives three instructions to each student regarding which items are to be put in it. (E.g. puppets, pieces of colored fabric, brushes, stencils, color pencils, small toys etc.) Students follow instructions. The activity is
(a) listening with concentration for specific information needed for a task
(b) stage in a listening session when a listening completes a task
(c) listening to natural conversation between teacher and student.
(d) listening to a speech which is semi – scripted
Q15. Learning to speak in a second language does not involve
(a) its pronunciation
(b) culturally bound speaking events
(c) theoretical knowledge of a language
(d) second language grammatical knowledge

SOLUTIONS

S1. Ans.(a)
Sol. The spoken skills in a language teaching classroom can be developed through enabling activities with a focus on conversation skills leading to communicative competence.

S2. Ans.(d)
Sol. Make Ria understand the meaning and the sound pattern and get the class as a whole to listen to these words through an audio – visual medium.

S3. Ans.(c)
Sol. Make Ria understand the meaning and the sound pattern and get the class as a whole to listen to these words through an audio – visual medium listening skills. students who develop better listening skills are more likely to feel confident, comfortable, and prepared to succeed in school. It can also help students build relationships because as they engage themselves in conversation, their peers are more likely to view them as open and interested.

S4. Ans.(b)
Sol. The main purpose of using oral drill is that they help students gain confidence, and they help the teacher draw learners’ attention to phonological features (i.e., accuracy and pronunciation) of the target language.

S5. Ans.(d)
Sol. ‘Decorum’ in spoken language pertains to appropriate gestures. Decorum was a principle of classical rhetoric, poetry and theatrical theory that was about fitness or otherwise of a style to a theatrical subject. The concept of decorum is also applied to prescribed limits of appropriate social behavior within set situations.

S6. Ans.(c)
Sol. During the assessment of students’ speaking – listening skills, marks would be deducted during this exchange for both of them.

S7. Ans.(d)
Sol. Could you possibly pass me the newspaper?

S8. Ans.(c)
Sol. the teacher relates language function with politeness.

S9. Ans.(c)
Sol. Such a question is rhetorical.

S10. Ans.(b)
Sol. During the assessment of student’s speaking skills, marks would be deducted during this exchange for the second speaker.

S11. Ans.(a)
Sol. A student recommends the reading of the latest best seller, saying it is very interesting. You listen, trying to make out whether the student’s observation is sincere or not. This type of listening can be described critical.

S12. Ans.(b)
Sol. Students learning a language often lack confidence when speaking due to the language’s unique pronunciation rules. One way to overcome this problem is using game like activities which require verbal interaction in classroom.

S13. Ans.(d)
Sol. Students tell their version of a story based on some hints and apply it to a problem – solving situation.

S14. Ans.(a)
Sol. The activity is listening with concentration for specific information needed for a task.

S15. Ans.(c)
Sol. Learning to speak in a second language does not involve theoretical knowledge of a language.

LEARNING AND ACQUISITION (PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS)

Q1. The way through which the art of using skill and practice is given to learn is called
(a) learning
(b) acquisition
(c) erudition
(d) recitation

Q2. When language is learnt naturally and without any systematic practice, it is called as
(a) learning
(b) first learning
(c) acquisition
(d) erudition

Q3. A child has to use higher-order mental processes such as intelligence or reasoning in which types of learning?
(a) Motor skills learning
(b) Speaking
(c) Concept learning
(d) Verbal learning

Q4. The four basic language skills are –

(a) listening, speaking, understanding and expressing
(b)reading, writing, speaking and communicating
(c) listening, reading, speaking and communicating
(d) reading, writing, listening and speaking.

Q5. State which is not true in context of learning and acquisition?
(a) Acquisition is a natural process
(b) Learning is a continuous process
(c) Learning results in subject proficiency
(d) Acquisition helps in cognitive abilities

Q6. The ‘acquired system’ or acquisition of a language is the
(a) formal skills development
(b) sub-conscious process
(c) input-output process
(d) self-monitoring of learning

Q7. From the given factors, which one may not affect learning outcome?
(a) Learner’s motivation and interest
(b) Structure and size of classroom
(c) Teacher’s personality and attitude
(d) Parent’s income and status

Q8. Which one of the theories based on habit formation says that humans or any creatures give response due to stimulus or humans learn due to stimulus?
(a) Classical conditioning
(b) Operant conditioning
(c) Generalization
(d) Adaptation

Q9. Learning a language is a
(a) gradual process
(b) last process
(c) instant process
(d) all inclusive process

Q10. A teacher is explaining a new concept in the class. Shreya knows the meaning of difficult words and concepts. She also understands the concept without any difficulty. She is good in . . . . . . . . . . .
(a) motor skills
(b) cognitive abilities
(c) rote memory
(d) verbal ability

Q11. According to Vygotsky, learning in a child or adult takes place due to
(a) inborn abilities
(b) scientific attitude
(c) social interaction
(d) introduction of a stimulus

Q12. According to Piaget, learning occurs due to
(a) inborn speaking abilities
(b) stimulus recognition
(c) assimilation and adaptation
(d) scientific investigation

Q13. The children suffer from lack of self-esteem when they are
(a) not allowed to eat what they want
(b) not able to express their feelings through words or language
(c) are not allowed to play with friends
(d) None of the above

Q14. The term ‘second language’ refers to
(a) one’s native language
(b) regional languages
(c) other than the native
(d) None of the above

Q15. Which is not a very good method of learning vocabulary?
(a) Writing
(b) Watching movies
(c) Talking and reading
(d) (a) and (b)

SOLUTIONS

S1. Ans.(a)
Sol. The way through which the art of using skill and practice is given to learn is called learning. It is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences.

S2. Ans.(c)
Sol. When language is learnt naturally and without any systematic practice, it is called as acquisition.

S3. Ans.(c)
Sol. Higher-order thinking is a concept of education reform based on learning taxonomies. It is composed of a range of concept learning thinking skills.Higher-order thinking involves the learning of complex judgmental skills such as critical thinking and problem solving.

S4. Ans.(d)
Sol. The four basic language skills are reading, writing, listening and speaking.

S5. Ans.(d)
Sol. Acquisition helps in cognitive abilities.

S6. Ans.(b)
Sol. The ‘acquired system’ or ‘acquisition’ is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language.

S7. Ans.(d)
Sol. Parent’s income and status may not affect learning outcome.

S8. Ans.(a)
Sol. Classical conditioning- Habit formation is the basis of this theory. Pavlov says that human or any creature gives response due to stimulating. Stimulus is that things which create excitation in the creature. It means human learn due to stimulus.

S9. Ans.(a)
Sol. Learning a language is gradual process, we do not learn in day or two, but in years.

S10. Ans.(b)
Sol. A teacher is explaining a new concept in the class. Shreya knows the meaning of difficult words and concepts. She also understands the concept without any difficulty. She is good in cognitive abilities.

S11. Ans.(c)
Sol. According to Vygotsky, learning in a child or adult takes place due to social interaction.

S12. Ans.(c)
Sol. According to Piaget, learning occurs due to assimilation and adaptation.

S13. Ans.(b)
Sol. The children suffer from lack of self-esteem when they are not able to express their feelings through words or language.

S14. Ans.(c)
Sol. A person’s second language, or L2, is a language that is not the native language (first language or L1) of the speaker, but is learned later (usually as a foreign language, but it can be another language used in the speaker’s home country).

S15. Ans.(d)
Sol. Writing and watching movies is not a very good method of learning vocabulary.

LANGUAGE SKILLS (PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS)

Q1. Students need to brainstorm ideas, organize, draft, edit and revise their work, is a process’ which reflects
(a) listening skills
(b) speaking skills
(c) reading skills
(d) writing skills

Q2. Reading for comprehension can be best achieved through
(a) teaching learners to run a finger or pencil under the line being read
(b) asking the children to read the text aloud
(c) helping learners speak words softly while reading
(d) learners reading silently and asking comprehension questions

Q3. Language skills are best learnt
(a) only through written tests and assignments
(b) if they are taught in an integrated manner
(c) with the help of challenging and mechanical language drills
(d) when they are introduced in isolation, one skill at a time

Q4. Correct speech habits can be developed most effectively through
(a) pronunciation practice
(b) vocabulary practice
(c) quizzes
(d) dictations

Q5. When young learners are asked to read a text silently, they should be instructed
(a) to stop reading whenever they encounter a difficult word or
(b) to infer the meaning of new words from the context and read with comprehension
(c) to pay special attention to grammar items used in the passage
(d) to read fast even if they don’t comprehend the meaning

Q6. In the word ‘scarce’, the phonetic transcription for ‘a’ is
(a) /e/
(b) /ea/
(c) /ie/
(d) /ae/

Q7. Retrieval skills in writing are
(a) organizing information while reading/listening
(b) note making and note taking
(c) diagramming and summarizing
(d) abilities to do extensive reference work

Q8. Assessing reading at class VII, can be done most effectively through a
(a) writing a 50 word book text review as a small project
(b) spoken quiz based on the meanings of words and expressions
(c) written test based the characters and events in the story / text
(d) an oral interview to find out how much they have read

Q9. In the case of vocabulary use, grammar provides a pathway to learners to
(a) speak in formal situations with greater accuracy and confidence
(b) re – tell listening inputs into oral output
(c) combine lexical items into meaningful and communicative expression
(d) draft formal pieces of writing in higher classes

Q10. Among the four language skills, which pair constitutes the reinforcement skills?
(a) Reading and listening
(b) Speaking and listening
(c) Reading and speaking
(d) Speaking and writing

Q11. Students of Class IV can recognize flawed usage of sentence construction when the teacher
(a) tells them something is wrong
(b) gives alternatives as possible corrections
(c) lets them find the corrections
(d) focuses on certain surface errors

Q12. The teacher and student/s discus a topic and the former starts the conversation by asking a question, then the student’s respond by giving examples and explanations. The speaking assessment here is to grade how well students
(a) speak fluently and creatively
(b) process information and respond appropriately
(c) express themselves
(d) respond in an appropriate tone and express themselves fluently and accurately

Q13. One of the sub – skills that is assessed for speaking would be
(a) understanding and responding in a paragraph to literary works
(b) using appropriate volume, clarity and gestures in individual or group situations
(c) spelling common, frequently used words correctly
(d) listening actively and responding to others in small and large group situations

Q14. Skilled reading is
(a) progressive
(b) deliberate
(c) constructive
(d) imaginative

Q15. The assessment of students writing should most importantly focus on
(a) keeping to the word limit
(b) using idioms and metaphors
(c) correct spelling and grammar
(d) expressions and ideas

SOLUTIONS

S1. Ans.(d)
Sol. Students need to brainstorm ideas, organize, draft, edit and revise their work, is a process’ which reflects writing skills.

S2. Ans.(d)
Sol. Reading for comprehension can be best achieved through learners reading silently and asking comprehension questions.

S3. Ans.(b)
Sol. Language skills are best learnt if they are taught in an integrated manner.

S4. Ans.(a)
Sol. Correct speech habits can be developed most effectively through vocabulary practice.

S5. Ans.(b)
Sol. When young learners are asked to read a text silently, they should be instructed to infer the meaning of new words from the context and read with comprehension.

S6. Ans.(d)
Sol. In the word ‘scarce’, the phonetic transcription for ‘a’ is /ae/.

S7. Ans.(c)
Sol. Retrieval skills in writing are diagramming and summarizing.

S8. Ans.(a)
Sol. Assessing reading at class VII, can be done most effectively through a writing a 50 word book text review as a small project.

S9. Ans.(c)
Sol. In the case of vocabulary use, grammar provides a pathway to learners to combine lexical items into meaningful and communicative expression.

S10. Ans.(d)
Sol. Reading and listening are passive while speaking and writing are reinforcement or productive skills.

S11. Ans.(a)
Sol. Students of Class IV can recognize flawed usage of sentence construction when the teacher tells them something is wrong.

S12. Ans.(b)
Sol. The teacher and student/s discus a topic and the former starts the conversation by asking a question, then the student’s respond by giving examples and explanations. The speaking assessment here is to grade how well students process information and respond appropriately.

S13. Ans.(b)
Sol. One of the sub – skills that is assessed for speaking would be using appropriate volume, clarity and gestures in individual or group situations.

S14. Ans.(c)
Sol. Skilled reading is constructive.

S15. Ans.(d)
Sol. The assessment of students writing should most importantly focus on expressions and ideas.

ROLE OF GRAMMAR IN LEARNING A LANGUAGE (PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS)

Q1. Communicative Language Teaching is concerned with
(a) teaching language to learners for written tests
(b) interpreting grammar rules to suits the audience
(c) enhancing receptive and productive skills such as speaking, listening, reading and writing
(d) teaching of vocabulary and grammar through rules of spelling and language

Q2. When a test item expects the learners to use tense forms, voice, connectors, prepositions and articles accurately, such an approach can be called
(a) mixed grammar task
(b) improper grammar testing
(c) integrated grammar testing
(d) asserted grammar practice

Q3. Minimal pairs are usually used to give practice in
(a) Pronunciation
(b) Reading
(c) Vocabulary
(d) Structures

Q4. I suggest that, we all watch the movie “TIGER”. It has been suggested that we watch the movie ‘TIGER’ together. The two given statements can be differentiated by drawing students attention to the
(a) Change in the verb forms
(b) The roles of the subject and object in both sentences
(c) Use of ‘by’ in the passive form
(d) The arrangement of words

Q5. You have to bring your own stationery. You will need 2 pencils, an eraser and a ruler. The underlined word is a
(a) Substitute word
(b) Reference word
(c) Conjunction
(d) Lexically similar word

Q6. Exemplar for homonym would be
(a) aisle / isle
(b) beer / bear
(c) state / stall
(d) stock / stoke

Q7. Which is a lexical word?
(a) Love
(b) Is
(c) The
(d) Might

Q8. While learning about the passive voice form, students learn about
(a) Use of ‘by’
(b) Position of verbs
(c) Position of nouns
(d) Use of verb form

Q9. Students can leave the school premises at 12: 30 pm.
Student ought to leave the school premises at 12: 30 pm.
The two given statements can be differentiated by drawing student’s attention to the
(a) differences in the arrangement of words
(b) meaning conveyed by the modals / verbs modifiers
(c) the roles of the subject and object in both sentences
(d) absence of change in the verb form

Q10. Identify where the collective form is an error.
(a) Host of angels
(b) Congress of baboons
(c) Clutch of ducks
(d) Shoal of fish

Q11. The politician had been making promises long before election time. The statement is in the ___________________ tense.
(a) Past continuous
(b) Present perfect
(c) Present perfect continuous
(d) Past perfect continuous

Q12. An exemplar of a question to ‘funnel’ or restrict a respondent’s answer is
(a) “What do you think of the weather?”
(b) “How many books are there?”
(c) “Tell me about your most recent holiday”
(d) “What are your goals?”

Q13. In the communicative classroom learners acquire the grammar of second language to
(a) Understand second language better while reading / listening to it
(b) Understand how to make meaning and become more proficient in speaking and writing
(c) Enhance their formal communication skills
(d) Write Confidently

Q14. Structures in second language are better assimilated in a pedagogical practice
(a) Through repetition and practice of commonly used syntax
(b) Through application of learnt structures in discrete language terms
(c) Through meaningful interaction with interesting content
(d) Insisting on accuracy, explicit instruction in rules

Q15. When the teacher quietly observes the students during a collaborative grammar activity, the activity plays a ____________________ role.
(a) diagnostic
(b) evaluative
(c) interactive
(d) record keeping

SOLUTIONS

S1. Ans.(c)
Sol. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages. It emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language.

S2. Ans.(c)
Sol. When a test item expects the learners to use tense forms, voice, connectors, prepositions and articles accurately, such an approach can be called integrated grammar testing.

S3. Ans.(d)
Sol. Minimal pairs are usually used to give practice in structures.

S4. Ans.(b)
Sol. The roles of the subject and object in both sentences.

S5. Ans.(a)
Sol. The underlined word is substitute word.

S6. Ans.(a)
Sol. Exemplar for homonym would be ‘aisle’ and ‘isle’.

S7. Ans.(a)
Sol. Love is a lexical word.

S8. Ans.(d)
Sol. In passive form, the use of verb form is the most important part of learning.

S9. Ans.(b)
Sol. The two given statements can be differentiated by drawing students’’ attention to the meaning conveyed by the modals/verb modifiers.

S10. Ans.(c)
Sol. Clutch of ducks.

S11. Ans.(d)
Sol. The statement is in the past perfect continuous.

S12. Ans.(b)
Sol. “How many books are there?”

S13. Ans.(b)
Sol. In the communicative classroom, a learner acquires the grammar of second language to understand how to make meaning and become more proficient in speaking and writing. In the communicative competence model, the purpose of learning grammar is to learn the language of which the grammar is a part. Teachers should teach grammar forms and structure in relation to meaning and use.

S14. Ans.(c)
Sol. Structure in second language is better assimilated in a pedagogical practice through meaningful interaction with interesting content which will also modify the grammar.

S15. Ans.(c)
Sol. When the teacher quietly observes the students during a collaborative grammar activity, the activity plays an interactive role

EVALUATION OF COMPREHENSION AND LANGUAGE SKILLS
(PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS)

Q1. Criteria of assessment is a / are
(a) guidelines with marking scheme
(b) questions – wise distribution of marks
(c) general impression of a student’s ability
(d) scoring key

Q2. Which of the following statements is true?
(a) All formative tasks are meant for assessment
(b) Formative assessment, to be effective, must be conducted only after teaching a lesson
(c) While all formative tasks are meant for improving
(d) Formative assessment helps us to grade students into good, average and poor

Q3. A rhetorical question is asked
(a) to gather personal information
(b) to clarify a concept
(c) for the sake of effect with no answer needed
(d) to get a feedback about what others think about you speech / writing
Q4. What type of questions promote thinking skills in children?
(a) Factual question
(b) Questions based on purely on the reading text
(c) Personal response question
(d) Closed – ended questions

Q5. Which of the following will help learners take greater responsibility for their own learning?
(a) Supervised reading sessions
(b) Controlled writing tasks
(c) Peer Assessment
(d) Summative Assessment

Q6. The main purpose of assessment is
(a) to measure achievement of learners
(b) to give practice in writing
(c) to improve the teaching learning process
(d) to decide pass and fail

Q7. When young learners are taught to improve their spelling and punctuation, they will
(a) enhance their fluency
(b) nurture their creativity
(c) Sharpen their listing skills
(d) improve their accuracy

Q8. Instead of asking questions and getting answer from her learners, a teacher gives some short texts and asks her learners to frame questions. Her primary objective is to
(a) Take their help during examination
(b) Make the learners realize the difficulties faced by teacher in preparing question papers
(c) Enhance the learner’s analytical and critical thinking
(d) Train the learners as good question paper setters
Q9. Reading between the lines as a sub – skill reading mainly involves
(a) understanding the states facts
(b) giving sufficient space between lines
(c) inferring the unstated using the contextual and verbal clues
(d) identifying the grammatical item
Q10. To inculcate a ‘Never Give Up Attitude’, a suitable activity is the one when students
(a) Managed to get the principal’s permission to go out and play during the English period
(b) Song two popular songs and exhibited some of their art and craft works during the parent teacher meet
(c) Made modification to their paper planes and tested them again, experimented with the best way to get them to go the distance and shared their finding
(d) In groups created graphs about the difficult situations that students have had to face in life

Q11. While ‘evaluating students’ responses for a reading comprehension, marks may be deducted for __________ errors.
(a) grammatical
(b) syntactical
(c) content
(d) Spelling

Q12. A text that requires students to scan in order to understand and analyze the writer’s message and purpose could be
(a) an encyclopedic extract
(b) a newspaper headline
(c) a set of instructions to assemble a device
(d) a poem

Q13. While drafting a notice, students may be instructed to use language
(a) direct
(b) intrigue
(c) descriptive
(d) elaborated

Q14. For evaluating a poster designed as a part of a competition, which of the following criteria would be the most appropriate for the judges?
(a) Relevant content, style and word limit
(b) Use of quotation, style and visual appeal
(c) Creativity, relevant content and visual appeal
(d) Creativity, fonts and visual appeal

Q15. While teaching children to read, at which point should the teacher focus on comprehension?
(a) When children reach class II
(b) After children have learned how to decode
(c) Right from the beginning
(d) Once children have mastered phonics

SOLUTIONS

S1. Ans.(c)
Sol. Assessment criteria are statements specifying the standards that must be met and the evidence that will be gathered to demonstrate the achievement of learning outcomes. The purpose of assessment criteria is to establish clear and unambiguous standards of achievement for each learning outcome. Hence, Criteria of assessment are a general impression of student’s ability.

S2. Ans.(c)
Sol. While all formative tasks are meant for improving.

S3. Ans.(c)
Sol. A rhetorical question is asked “for the sake of effect with no answer needed”. A rhetorical question is a figure of speech in the form of a question that is asked in order to make a point rather than to elicit an answer.

S4. Ans.(c)
Sol. When students answer to personal response questions, it enlightens their thought process and makes them think harder over a problem.

S5. Ans.(c)
Sol. Peer assessment or peer review provides a structured learning process for students to critique and provide feedback to each other on their work. It helps students develop lifelong skills in assessing and providing feedback to others, and also equips them with skills to self-assess and improve their own work.

S6. Ans.(a)
Sol. The purpose of assessment is to gather relevant information about student performance or progress, or to determine student interests to make judgments about their learning process.

S7. Ans.(d)
Sol. When young learners are taught to improve their spelling and punctuation, they will improve their accuracy.

S8. Ans.(c)
Sol. Instead of asking questions and getting answer from her learners, a teacher gives some short texts and asks her learners to frame questions. Her primary objective is to enhance the learner’s analytical and critical thinking.

S9. Ans.(c)
Sol. Reading between the lines as a sub – skill reading mainly involves inferring the unstated using the contextual and verbal clues.

S10. Ans.(c)
Sol. To inculcate a ‘Never Give Up Attitude’, a suitable activity is the one when students made modification to their paper planes and tested them again, experimented with the best way to get them to go the distance and shared their finding.

S11. Ans.(c)
Sol. The marks of students may be deducted for their content errors.

S12. Ans.(d)
Sol. A text that requires students to scan in order to understand and analyze the writer’s message and purpose could be a poem.

S13. Ans.(a)
Sol. In drafting a notice the students are instructed to use direct language.

S14. Ans.(c)
Sol. Creativity, relevant content and visual appeal.
S15. Ans.(c)
Sol. While teaching children to read, the teacher should focus right from the beginning of comprehension.